Gothic

Overview

Gothic is the only substantially attested East Germanic language and the earliest voluminous witness of the Germanic languages (4th–6th c. AD). It has come down to us almost exclusively through the Bible translation attributed to the Visigothic bishop Wulfila (Ulfilas, c. 311–383), copied notably in the sumptuous Codex Argenteus (6th c., Ostrogothic Italy). By virtue of its antiquity, its chronological proximity to Proto-Germanic, and its status as a nearly word-for-word translation of a known Greek original, Gothic is a cornerstone of Germanic and Indo-European comparative grammar. It is today fully deciphered, furnished with a solid grammar, lexicon, and critical editions.

History of the people

The Goths are a Germanic people whose tradition (Jordanes, Getica, 6th c., a late and partly legendary source) traces their origin to Scandinavia via the mouth of the Vistula; archaeology associates them with the Wielbark and then the Chernyakhov cultures (north of the Black Sea, 2nd–4th c.). In the 3rd c. they pressed against the Danube limes and plundered Asia Minor. They split into Visigoths (Tervingi) and Ostrogoths (Greuthungi). Converted in part to Arianism, they received Wulfila's work. Under pressure from the Huns (375), the Visigoths entered the Empire, crushed Valens at Adrianople (378), sacked Rome (410, under Alaric), and founded a kingdom in Aquitaine and then in Hispania (Toledo), until the Arab conquest (711). The Ostrogoths, under Theodoric the Great, established a kingdom in Italy (Ravenna, 493–553), destroyed by Justinian. A Gothic enclave ("Crimean Gothic") survived into the modern period.

History of the language

Classical Gothic is an East Germanic language, a branch now extinct and without descendants. Nearly the entire corpus reflects the literary usage created by Wulfila in the 4th c. for his biblical translation; the surviving manuscripts are 6th-c. copies made in Ostrogothic Italy. After the collapse of the Gothic kingdoms, the language lost all written use and died out as a spoken language in Western Europe between the 6th and 8th c., absorbed by Romance and ecclesiastical Latin (the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589, at the Third Council of Toledo, which deprived Gothic of its Arian liturgical support). A late and distinct offshoot, Crimean Gothic, is still documented in the 16th c. by a famous list of about 80 words recorded by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (recorded c. 1560–1562, published in his 4th Turkish Letter, ed. 1589); this dialect probably died out before the modern period. Its exact relationship to Wulfila's Gothic remains disputed (uncertain).

The script

The Gothic alphabet was devised by Wulfila in the 4th c. specifically for the biblical translation, replacing the earlier use of runes. It comprises about 27 signs, written left to right. Its basis is the Greek uncial (majuscule forms), supplemented by a few letters borrowed from the Latin alphabet and/or the runic futhark to render phonemes peculiar to Gothic (notably ƕ, þ, u, o, r, s according to various analyses). Each letter carries, as in Greek, a numerical value; numbers are marked by an overline and sometimes flanked by dots. Wulfila retained/reassigned certain Greek numeral values: 𐌵 (q) occupies the position of digamma/stigma (6), 𐌾 (j) that of xi (60), 𐌿 (u) that of omicron (70), 𐍈 (ƕ) that of psi (700). The punctuation of the Codex Argenteus employs the interpunct (·) and the colon (:); a diaeresis over 𐌹 (ï) marks hiatus or vocalic word-initial position. The Codex Argenteus is written in silver and gold ink on purple parchment—hence its name ("silver book").

Sign system

Complete alphabet (standard transliteration of Streitberg/Braune): 𐌰 a, 𐌱 b, 𐌲 g, 𐌳 d, 𐌴 e, 𐌵 q, 𐌶 z, 𐌷 h, 𐌸 þ (thorn), 𐌹 i, 𐌺 k, 𐌻 l, 𐌼 m, 𐌽 n, 𐌾 j, 𐌿 u, 𐍀 p, (𐍁 = numeral sign "90", of koppa shape, without phonetic value), 𐍂 r, 𐍃 s, 𐍄 t, 𐍅 w, 𐍆 f, 𐍇 x (chi, reserved for Greek words such as Xristus), 𐍈 ƕ (hwair), 𐍉 o, (𐍊 = numeral sign "900", of sampi type). Two signs (𐍁 = 90, 𐍊 = 900) have only a numeral function; the sign for 900 is attested only in the Salzburg-Vienna manuscript, not in the Bible. The graphic sequences <ai> and <au> cover several values (see phonology), and <ei> denotes the long vowel [iː]. Scholarly convention: g before g/k/q is read [ŋ].

Phonology

Consonants: stops p t k, b d g (with fricative allophones [β ð ɣ] in intervocalic/final position); labiovelars q [kʷ] and ƕ [ʍ]; fricatives f, þ [θ], s, h, z ([z], the outcome of the retained Germanic voiced sibilant); nasals m n (velar n [ŋ] before a velar); liquids l r; semivowels w j. Gothic preserves Germanic [z] (where North and West Germanic have r by rhotacism). Short vowels: a, i, u; e and o are long (ē, ō). The digraph <ai> denotes: (1) a diphthong [ai]; (2) a short [ɛ] before h/r/ƕ (conventionally written aí); (3) a long [ɛː] in certain cases (written ái). Likewise <au> = [au], or short [ɔ] (aú) before h/r/ƕ. <ei> = long [iː]. The quantitative distinction and the exact values of ai/au remain partly reconstructed (an old scholarly debate: the "monophthong" hypothesis going back to Jacob Grimm). Word-initial stress (on the root), a Germanic inheritance, is not marked graphically.

Grammar — essentials

An archaic inflectional language. NOUN: 3 genders (masc./fem./neuter), 2 numbers (sg./pl.; vestiges of the dual in pronouns/verbs), 4 productive cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) + residual vocative. Thematic declensions (a-, ō-, i-, u-stems) and athematic ones (n-stems "weak", consonantal). E.g. dags "day" (masc. a-stem): nom. dags, acc. dag, gen. dagis, dat. daga; pl. nom. dagos, acc. dagans, gen. dage, dat. dagam. ADJECTIVE: double inflection, strong (indefinite) / weak (definite, after the article), a characteristic Germanic feature; comparative -iza/-ōza, superlative -ists/-ōsts. ARTICLE/DEMONSTRATIVE sa / so / þata (inflected for case/gender/number). VERB: opposes strong verbs (7 ablaut classes, preterite by vowel alternation, e.g. class I beitan~bait~bitun~bitans) and weak verbs (preterite with dental suffix -da, e.g. nasjan~nasida); preterite-present verbs (wait "I know", kann); athematic verbs (wisan "to be", gaggan "to go"). Gothic preserves a synthetic MEDIOPASSIVE voice (e.g. haitada "he is called") unique in attested Germanic (lost elsewhere). Moods: indicative, subjunctive (inherited optative), imperative; two tenses (present, preterite); future and compound tenses rendered by periphrases/aspect. Reduplication in the preterite of class VII (haitan~haihait). WORD ORDER is flexible, strongly influenced by the Greek calque in the biblical corpus—caution in inferring native syntax.

Reading tips

1) The corpus is ~90% a biblical translation highly faithful to a Greek original (Byzantine-type koine, close to the Majority Text): always draw on the parallel Greek—the Streitberg edition prints the Gothic facing the Greek, which resolves most ambiguities. 2) Beware of calques: word order, particles (jah = καί), and turns of phrase often reflect the Greek rather than a spontaneous Gothic syntax. 3) First segment the preverbs (ga-, us-, and-, dis-, fra-) bearing aspect/perfective value. 4) Identify the inflection: a final ending -s frequently signals a masc. nom. sg. or a genitive; -ns an accusative plural; -m/-am a dative plural. 5) Distinguish strong/weak adjective inflection to detect the presence of a definite article. 6) Resolve the overlined sacred abbreviations (nomina sacra): gþ = guþ, xus = Xristus, is/ius = Iesus. 7) For rare or lacunary vocabulary, rely on the Skeireins (commentary), the Gothic calendar, and the glosses, but FLAG the uncertainty; never coin an unattested word.

Pitfalls

1) The corpus is heavily biased (almost exclusively biblical and translated from Greek): do not confuse calqued syntax with native Gothic syntax. 2) A lacunary and fragmentary corpus: many paradigms are reconstructed by extrapolation; some forms are hapaxes. 3) The sequences ai and au are ambiguous (diphthong vs. short/long monophthong)—the exact phonetic value remains debated. 4) Abbreviated and overlined nomina sacra must be expanded correctly. 5) x is used only for Greek words (Xristus). 6) "Crimean Gothic" must not be conflated with Wulfila's Gothic: sources, period, and reliability are very different. 7) Avoid amateur sources (blogs, online automatic "translators"): rely on Streitberg/Braune/Wright or the Wulfila Project.

Decipherment history

Gothic was never "lost" in the sense of an undeciphered script: the alphabet and the language remained legible thanks to the biblical nature of the text and its proximity to the other Germanic languages. The story is rather one of (re)discovery and edition. The Codex Argenteus, rediscovered at the abbey of Werden (Rhineland) in the 16th c., passed through the imperial library of Rudolf II in Prague, whence it was carried off as war booty during the capture of Prague (1648, end of the Thirty Years' War) to Sweden; it reached the library of the University of Uppsala in the 1660s (via Isaac Vossius and then Count Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, who provided its present binding). The first printed edition (editio princeps) is due to Franciscus Junius, with the parallel Anglo-Saxon version by Thomas Marshall (Dordrecht, 1665). The modern comparative foundations were laid by Jacob Grimm (Deutsche Grammatik, from 1819 onward), who incorporated Gothic as a key witness of Germanic. The reference grammar and lexicography were fixed by Wilhelm Braune (Gotische Grammatik) and Wilhelm Streitberg (Die gotische Bibel, Gotisches Elementarbuch) in the 19th–20th c. The last leaf (fol. 336, the so-called Speyer fragment) was discovered in 1970.

Common formulae & expressions

atta unsar þu in himinam

Our Father who art in heaven (incipit of the Pater, Mt 6:9)

weihnai namo þein

Hallowed be thy name

qimai þiudinassus þeins

Thy kingdom come

frauja

Lord (also master)

guþ / gudis

God / of God (genitive)

jah

and (the most frequent conjunction, a calque of Greek καί)

iþ

but, now, whereas

ni

not (negation)

was / warþ

was / became (wisan "to be", wairþan "to become")

qaþ

he said (preterite of qiþan "to say", very frequent in the gospels)

aiwaggeljo

gospel (borrowing from Greek euangelion)

amen

amen (often in closing)

Corpora & reference editions

• Codex Argenteus (Uppsala, DG 1) — the four gospels, silver/gold ink on purple parchment, 6th c.; 188 of 336 folios preserved (including the Speyer fragment, discovered in 1970)
• Codices Ambrosiani A, B, C, D, E (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana) — Pauline epistles (palimpsests), fragments of the OT (Nehemiah/Ezra), and the Skeireins
• Codex Carolinus (Wolfenbüttel) — bilingual Gothic-Latin fragment of the Epistle to the Romans
• Skeireins — exegetical commentary on the Gospel of John (the only continuous Gothic text not translated from an identified Greek original)
• Gothic calendar and the deeds of sale from Naples/Arezzo (glosses, subscriptions)
• Wulfila Project (wulfila.be) — annotated digital edition based on Streitberg
• Crimean Gothic — lexical list of O. G. de Busbecq (Legationis Turcicae epistolae, 4th Letter, ed. 1589)

Bibliographic references

• Wilhelm Streitberg, Die gotische Bibel, Heidelberg, Carl Winter, 1908 (2 vol.; numerous repr.) — Reference edition: Gothic text facing the Greek + dictionary (vol. 2)
• Wilhelm Braune, Gotische Grammatik, Halle, Niemeyer, 1880 (numerous eds.; rev. Frank Heidermanns, 2004) — Standard reference grammar
• Wilhelm Streitberg, Gotisches Elementarbuch, Heidelberg, Winter, 1920 — Classic handbook (grammar + texts + glossary)
• Joseph Wright, A Grammar of the Gothic Language, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1910 — Reference grammar in English, with texts and glossary
• Sigmund Feist, Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache, Leiden, Brill, 3rd ed. 1939 — Classic etymological dictionary
• Winfred P. Lehmann, A Gothic Etymological Dictionary, Leiden, Brill, 1986 — Modern etymological dictionary based on Feist's 3rd ed.
• Jacob Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, Göttingen, 1819 sqq. — Foundation of Germanic comparative grammar, incorporating Gothic